|
Background
Implications
Regional aspects
Assessing and measuring the current situation
Indicators
Management responses
Discussion
Future directions
Recommendations
Related issues
Related case studies
|
|
Background 
The state of threatened communities-that is, assemblages of plants and/or animals-and species in the coastal, estuarine and marine areas of Tasmania is an important issue both for their intrinsic value and because the economic and social wealth of Tasmania is inextricably linked to our natural resource base. There is increasing community recognition that to maintain this resource base it is essential that the species and communities that define the ecosystems should remain healthy and viable. The loss of biological communities and species can be regarded as a loss of natural capital, which is a way of reducing options for people and other species in the future. The key pressures on threatened species include: - Direct destruction of animals and plants - for example, through land clearing, shooting or dredging;
- The loss of habitat - for example, through siltation or excess nutrient loads; and
- Loss of the capacity to breed adequately - for example, through disturbance of nesting sites.
Introduced species often create pressure on threatened species by invading habitat and competing for scarce food or breeding resources. A major contributor to the issue of threatened species is the poor state of knowledge about the species themselves including their habits, distribution, numbers and ecological relationships. Some species are not yet scientifically described. The same lack of information applies to threatened communities, if not more so. To date, there are no scientifically defined marine communities (Edgar 2001), though grouping of species into common habitats is common practice - for example, reef habitat or seagrass habitat. It appears reasonable to state that there are significant ecological changes in many Tasmanian coastal, estuarine and marine ecosystems and that an unknown number of communities are already lost. There is no capacity to recognise threatened communities under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995, though movement towards that goal are beginning. The lack of knowledge about the biology of Tasmania creates considerable uncertainty and risk in management of Tasmania's land and water resources because apparently reasonable activity could lead to catastrophic losses of valuable natural capital. More than 600 species are listed as threatened in the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995, with many species mostly or totally dependent on coastal, estuarine and marine habitats. Threatened species that predominantly live on land that is strongly influenced by the sea, such as the offshore islands, include: the Pedra Branca skink, the New Holland mouse and the striped marsh frog. Many other species live predominantly at the sea but are dependent on the land for a specific part of their life cycle, such as the Sub-Antarctic fur seal or the wandering albatross. Totally marine species live their entire lives in the salty waters of the estuaries and the sea, including species such as the spotted handfish and the Port Davey skate. It is important to appreciate that, in comparison to many habitats on land, coastal and marine habitats often cover very small areas. The factors governing the ecology of the coastal, estuarine and marine environments -such as nutrients, light levels, salinity, wind and wave exposure and bottom type-have created 'bands' of different living systems along the coast. For example, seagrasses typically only occur in waters between high water mark and 20 m deep. The strong linear zonation of these environments means that many species are restricted to long narrow bands that are both highly vulnerable to local impacts and tend to give a false impression of the overall extent of some species. Giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) may seem to be abundant around south-eastern Tasmania but a recent estimate of its total extent is about 770 ha, or 7 km2. This SoE report loosely distinguishes between coastal, estuarine and marine habitats but there is a great deal of overlap in reality. 'Coastal' refers mainly to the immediate nearshore area including the intertidal zone and the dry land immediately adjacent, while 'marine' refers to the areas further offshore that are mostly influenced by marine conditions. 'Estuarine' refers to the sheltered waterways where freshwater and marine waters interchange. The nature of the 'coastal zone' makes it difficult to set apart from the land or the atmosphere and many aspects of the environment cross the arbitrary boundaries made between them. It is because of this that many issues identified in the coastal zone are covered in other parts of the report. For example, plant biodiversity-incorporating coastal plants-is covered in the Biodiversity Chapter. Implications A further loss of species and communities erodes the natural capital of the Tasmanian resource base, cutting off future options and potentially creating the conditions for ecosystem collapse on local and regional scales. Regional aspects The issue of the threatened communities and species of coastal, estuarine and marine habitats is relevant to whole of the coastal, estuarine and marine zone including the foreshore. The interrelationships between the species and the environmental processes cross the land-water boundary and extend to the deepest State Coastal Waters. Estuaries should be recognised as among the areas of greatest natural ecological change and, potentially, the greatest human impacts. 
Assessing and measuring the current situation The Threatened Species Unit, DPIWE maintains a register of species listed under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995, which tracks the changes to species listings through time. Indicators
|
|
|
|
|
Threatened Animal Species - Coastal, Estuarine and Marine - at a glance
- There are 10 new coastal, estuarine and marine animal species listed as threatened under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 since the last SoE report in 1996. They are the following: spotted handfish, Port Davey skate, great white shark, live-bearing seastar, two unnamed seastars, Gunn's screw shell, Chappell Island tiger snake, Sub-Antarctic fur seal and the Chevron looper moth.
- Currently the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 lists 3 coastal, estuarine and marine animal species as Extinct, 26 as Endangered, 18 as Vulnerable and 11 as Rare.
- Currently the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 lists 3 coastal, estuarine and marine animal species as Extinct, 10 as Endangered, 19 asVulnerable and 3 as Rare.
- The status of the Pedra Branca skink changed from Vulnerable to Endangered, which is the highest level of listing other than Extinction. The following birds have also made the same shift in status: swift parrot, fairy prion, soft-plumaged petrel, grey-headed albatross and black-browed albatross.
- The status of the New Holland mouse changed from Rare to Endangered, which is the highest level of listing other than Extinction.
- The status of the white fronted tern changed from Rare to Vulnerable, meaning that it is considered more threatened.
|
|
|
|
|
Threatened Species - at a glance
The following indicates the groupings of animals and plants most at risk in coastal, estuarine and marine environments. - Algae: In 1995 no algae were listed as threatened. In 2000 there was one species: Cystoseira trinodis, a brown marine alga. This alga has a widespread distribution in northern Australia and the Indian Ocean tropics and subtropics. Previously its southern most known location had been Victor Harbour, South Australia. It was discovered in Tasmania in 1999 at Blackmans Bay, which is located between Dunalley and Marion Bay on the east coast of Tasmania. It was listed as threatened due to its restricted distribution and the possible impacts from aquaculture (e.g. oyster farming).
- Lichen: In 1995 no lichen were listed as threatened. In 2000, eight species were listed of which one is endemic. This is indicative of improved knowledge and an increase in nominations.
- Mammals: Eleven per cent (9) of Tasmanian mammal species are listed as threatened. Of these, one is Extinct (i.e. Tasmanian tiger), six are Endangered (i.e. they are very close of becoming extinct), one is Rare and one is Vulnerable. Between 1995 and 2000 two new seal species were listed on the Act: the Sub-Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus tropicalis) and the southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina). The New Holland mouse (Pseudomys novaehollandiae) was the only already listed species to become more threatened between 1995 and 2000. It has become more at risk due to its very limited distribution (i.e. there are only nine known populations) and because of the apparent decline in the numbers of populations.
- Birds: Of the 203 native birds in Tasmania 28 (14%) are threatened. Of the 28, seven are endemic (i.e. not found anywhere else in the world). Several species are also more at risk than they were in 1995 such as the swift parrot and the wedge-tailed eagle, which are now Endangered, that is, in imminent danger of becoming extinct in Tasmania.
- Reptiles: Almost one quarter (6 of 25) of Tasmania's reptile species are threatened. Of the six, two are endemic. Between 1995 and 2000 the number of listed species increased from five to six as the Chappell Island tiger snake (Notechis ater serventyi) was added. The status of the Pedra Branca skink (Niveoscincus palfreymani) was changed from Vulnerable to Endangered, meaning that it is considered more threatened.
- Marine fish: In 1995, no marine fish species listed as threatened. By 2001, three species were listed: the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), the Port Davey skate (Raja sp. L) and the spotted handfish (Brachionichthys hirsutus).
- Invertebrates: The number of invertebrates (i.e. animals without backbones) listed as threatened increased from 108 in 1995 to 116 in 2000. Of the 116 species, 109 are endemic meaning that they are not found anywhere else in the world. The 116 listed species include three seastars and a mollusc. No seastars were listed in 1995. In 2000, three species were listed all of which are endemic.
|
|
|
|
|
Ex Situ Research On Threatened Species - at a glance
Four of the five species that have ex situ research programs in 2001 can be regarded as mostly coastal. The four are: Stuart's heath (Epacris stuartii); the orange-bellied parrot (Neophema chrysogaster); the swift parrot (Lathamus discolor), Morrisby's gum (Eucalyptus morrisbyi) and the spotted handfish (Brachionichthys hirsutus).
|
|
|
|
|
Marine Protected Areas - at a glance
- Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are one way of increasing protection for threatened species. However, none of Tasmania's existing MPAs are specifically designed to protect threatened species.
- Since 1996, one new Marine Protected Area has been declared around Macquarie Island, which is located in the Southern Ocean 1,500 km south-east of Tasmania. This reserve has increased the area of marine protection in Tasmanian waters by 81,472 ha and is the largest 'no take' marine reserve in the world when combined with the adjacent Commonwealth marine reserve.
- However, aside from Macquarie Island, only 1,416 ha (0.06%), or less than one thousandth, of Tasmanian coastal waters are protected, including one reserve in which recreational fishing is allowed.
|
|
|
|
|
Extent and Condition of Marine and Coastal Habitats - at a glance
Indicator reliability comment: There is no systematic collection of data to support this indicator at present, and so we have no comparative data and little certainty about either condition or trends. - Marine, coastal and estuarine waters together make up just over a quarter of the total area of the State of Tasmania. However, very little is known about either the current condition of the ecology coastal and marine habitats or of trends in condition. Little is also known about the extent of habitats in marine waters deeper than 40 metres.
- The lack of knowledge also extends to threatened species, including limitations in understanding the biology and distribution of many species. For example, a huge number of smaller animals are unknown to science. The paucity of knowledge hampers efforts to identify and protect species at risk.
- Maria and Bruny Islands appear to be hotspots of reef-species biodiversity while the Kent Group of islands have especially high diversity of reef fish species (Edgar et al. 1995).
- The offshore islands of Tasmania are highly vulnerable, though unique, marine ecosystems, which offer shelter to many species, including those that may be threatened by feral predators on the larger islands.
|
|
|
|
|
Extent and Condition of Estuarine Habitats - at a glance
Indicator reliability comment: There is no systematic collection of data to support this indicator at present, and so we have no comparative data and little certainty about either condition or trends. - Evidence is emerging of massive losses of shell (mollusc) species over the past 150 years in shallow, sheltered estuarine waters of the south-east (Samson & Edgar 2001). The losses were previously undetected, which highlights the risk of the 'sliding baseline syndrome' where changes that occur over generations are not noticed and the new environmental conditions are thought of as 'normal' (Dayton et al. 1998).
- Biological resources within most large Tasmanian estuaries are exploited, with unknown consequences for ecosystem structure and function. In addition, nine major indirect threats to Tasmanian estuaries have been recognised (Edgar et al. 1999). While all of these factors can potentially disrupt ecosystem processes, including taking species over the brink of extinction, the magnitude and spatial scale of these threats vary greatly. The threats are:
- Increased siltation resulting from land clearance and urban and rural run-off;
- Increased nutrient loads resulting from sewage and agricultural use of fertilisers;
- Urban effluent;
- Foreshore development and dredging;
- Marine farms;
- Modification to water flow through dams and weirs;
- Acidification of rivers and heavy metal pollution from mines;
- The spread of introduced pest species; and
- Long-term climate change.
- Amongst the more localised threats to estuaries, siltation was found to have an extremely widespread effect on Tasmanian estuaries. Estuaries with moderate or high human population densities in catchments consistently possessed muddy rather than sandy estuarine bottoms and shores.
- Currently, the condition of Tasmanian saltmarshes is not well known. The level of uncertainty means that the risks associated with the management of the saltmarshes is high.
|
|
|
|
|
Management responses Examples of key responses include the following:- The Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 (Tasmania) is in place.
- The Threatened Species Strategy (Threatened Species Unit 2000) was prepared. It provides a clear framework for identifying and managing both key threatening processes and priority threatened species.
- An initiative to recognise threatened communities under the Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 is being drafted.
- In March 2003, the Government endorsed the Tasmanian Nature Conservation Strategy in principle.
- The strategy is a major overhaul of the conservation management framework including extending and merging the Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 and the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1970 with a view to providing, among other things, improved protection for threatened species. The Strategy also proposes increased funding for the Threatened Species Strategy.
- NRM Strategies for the Tamar, King Island and the Furneaux Group are in place and will assist in the management of threatened species in those areas.
Discussion A lack of knowledge about the biology and distribution of many species means there is considerable uncertainty about which species are threatened, what the threatening processes are and what is the best way to protect them. The Threatened Species Unit is struggling to conduct adequate fieldwork to support the listing of species under the Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 under current resourcing levels. Overall the indicators are generally pointing to a poor result for threatened species over the last 5 years, as follows:- There are 10 new species listed under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995;
- The species that have changed categories of threat have all moved closer to extinction; and
- Evidence is emerging of significant loss of species, at least on a local scale, in the estuaries.
Some changes may reflect the increase in knowledge of a species, but can also reflect the emergence of new threats to its survival. However, the plight of threatened species is illustrated by the following progress reports:- The Spotted Handfish (Brachionichthys hirsutus) is teetering on the brink of extinction yet some good news is emerging. A steady decline numbers in one of the three known colonies has halted and a slow upward climb has begun. Numbers are now back to the population levels recorded at the start of monitoring. The reversal is attributed to improved spawning habitat following a local decline in Northern Pacific seastar numbers and the addition of artificial spawning aids. Numbers in the other two colonies remain steady and the total population is estimated to be a meagre 1,000.
- Stuart's Heath (Epacris stuartii) has only one small natural population on Southport Bluff, which is under threat from high fire frequencies and an introduced fungal pest, Phytopthora cinnamomi. Recent human intervention has seen a second small group of the plants successfully established in a nearby location that is much better protected from impacts.
- Morrisby's Gum (Eucalyptus morrisbyi) is now established at a new site in Hobart using seed from the East Risdon remnant patch. The East Risdon patch itself is in decline under the severe pressure exerted by the extremely dry climatic conditions of the past three decades. This has prompted the extraordinary step of installing a watering system. The main remnant patch of about 2,000 trees on Calvert's Hill is progressing towards improved protection after being purchased under the RFA Private Forest Reserve Program.
- Swamp Eyebright (Euphrasia gibbsiae subspecies psilantherea) is a buttongrass herb, which has a worldwide known distribution of 60 m by 60m in a single patch near Black Swan Lagoon, Recherche Bay. The threat to its survival is escalating with recent forestry roading providing easier access to recreational 4 wheel driving. The extended drought conditions are also adding to the poor prognosis for the species.
- The Orange-bellied Parrot remains close to extinction. Some favourable news in the face of this bleak prospect is that the captive breeding program is operating at maximum capacity and there is a new release site at Birches Inlet. Birds bred in captivity and released are successfully returning and breeding at Birches Inlet and Melaleuca. However, energy producing wind farm development on the West Coast may threaten the parrot. Other bird species have fatally collided with wind farms including farms within the range of the parrots near Portland at Codrington, Victoria. Mathematical models of collisions indicate that the risk to the parrots is extremely low.
- The population of breeding Wandering Albatross on Macquarie Island remains stable at 10 pairs a year.
The primary threatening processes remain: - Habitat destruction - for example, by siltation in estuaries -
- Habitat disturbance - for example, by disturbing nesting shorebirds on beaches -
- Competition and predation by feral animals - for example, by cats and foxes - and
- Unsustainable natural resource exploitation - for example, through removal of ecologically critical species.
However, all the news is not grim. - The Threatened Species Unit reports there is a definite lifting of awareness of the plight of shorebirds, particularly breeding and migratory birds. There are more local groups contributing through on-ground works and active protection of colonies and important feeding areas.
- Further, Macquarie Island is now free of feral cats. Two years have passed since the last cat sighting, which is the period required for officially declaring the program a success. It took 30 years and a lot of hard work to achieve this result.
- The fishing industries have made progress by seeking accreditation for the export fisheries of abalone, rock lobster and giant crab. To obtain an export licence, marine wild fisheries are now required to report, among other things, levels of by-catch, sustainability and interactions with threatened species. It is expected that all other Tasmania fisheries will adopt the new reporting standards.
Future directions Prospective future directions for managing threatened species and ecological communities include the following:- Resource and implement the Threatened Species Strategy (Threatened Species Unit 2000) and provide adequate resources to implement the requirements of the Threatened Species Protection Act 1995. Priority should be given to the preparation and implementation of recovery plans and threat abatement plans, particularly for State listed species.
- Improve whole-of-government responses to address threatening processes.
- Amend the Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 to:
- Include listing of threatened ecological communities;
- Address issues such as recreational and commercial propagation/management of threatened species and ex-situ cultivation;
- Increase the capacity to identify and deal with key threatening processes (e.g. land clearance, weeds etc);
- Review compensation mechanisms across all appropriate Acts; and
- Review the enforcement provisions of the Threatened Species Protection Act 1995
- Improve State and Commonwealth co-operation in recovery actions especially when dealing with migratory species and species with national and international ranges e.g. whales, turtles, seals, seabirds etc. Comprehensive co-operation, co-ordination and communication are essential.
- Encourage government agencies and landholders responsible for managing land or water where threatened species occur to direct resources into conserving species through joint agreements.
- Expand outputs of information to increase awareness on threatened species, geodiversity and threatening processes e.g. listing statements, maps for Local Government, public information etc.
- Publicise the protected status of threatened species and the requirements for permits to take listed species.
- Clarify the relationship between permits and management agreements and restrict the issuing of permits where they further reduce threatened populations or habitat.
- Prepare recovery programs or listing statements for all endangered and vulnerable species in Tasmania, including the identification and protection of critical habitat where appropriate.
- List Tasmanian threatened ecological communities and/or bioregionally significant communities on the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.
- Develop processes in consultation with the stakeholders and the community to protect priority non-forest communities.
- Develop and maintain up-to-date information on the distribution of, and management prescriptions for, threatened species and ecological communities, and ensure that this information is readily accessible.
Tasmania Together and the RMPS Relevant Tasmania Together goals and standards for 'Coastal, Estuarine and Marine' are listed in the linked file. The Tasmania Together Progress Board reported on progress toward targets for benchmarks set (Tasmania Together Progress Board 2003). Indicators, targets and baseline data are available in the latest Progress Report June 2003. Further information, including progress report updates, is available from Tasmania Together. Involvement of the community, and the fair and orderly use of resources are also fundamental principles of the RMPS. The RMPS objectives have been developed to advance the principles of sustainable development. Recommendations
Related issues
Related case studies
|
|
